PEOPLE.IDEAS.PERFORMANCE

82 different styles that the manager may want to consider. We do restrict our selection of styles to focus on the employees, rather than on the leader, thus, while the Charismatic leadership style is well-known, because of its focus on the leader, rather than the employee, we will not include it here. We define Ethical leadership as leaders doing the right thing in the right way. Since an ethic is a choice of behavior that is considered preferable to all other possible choices, ethical leaders seek to know what employees expect and prefer, then leaders authentically behave in ways that produce the greatest good to the collective or to the individual, depending on the culture where the manager is working. Expatriate managers working in Romania should consider using group-focused styles such as Paternalistic/Clan and Transformational Leadership. Whereas, expatriate managers working in the USA should consider using individual-focused styles such as Transactional Leadership and Servant Leadership. 3DWHUQDOLVWLF &ODQ /HDGHUVKLS Paternalistic leadership focuse s on the nuclear ‘family’, which may be similar to a work group, or department and the extended family, which could be similar to the organization or society (Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang, & Farh, 2004; Chou, 2002; Lee, 2001). Chan (1997) described Clan culture as seeking to protect the clan from outside influence, maintaining status quo, clan cohesiveness, and more tolerant of clan members’ behavior than non-clan members. Thus, Paternalistic/Clan leadership and culture fit well with the collectivist culture. Of concern to the expatriate manager working in a collectivist society is the need to become known to the clan as a member of the clan, rather than an outsider. 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQDO /HDGHUVKLS Transformational leadership, according to Bass (2000) focuses on the well-being of the organization, which makes it appropriate for a collectivist society. Transformational leaders, are not seen as a father/mother figure as is the case with Paternalistic, thus this would make transformational leadership more appropriate in societies with high power-distance ratings (more social and emotional distance between those in charge and those who report to the manager). Transformational leaders use four categories of behaviors to influence employees: (a) inspirational motivation that seeks to connect with the employees’ higher ideals for the group’s well -being; (b) individualized consideration, in which the manager seeks to connect the individual’s desire for rewards to the group’s objectives and goals; (c) intellectual stimulation that allows the manager to connect with the employees’ intellect at both the individual and group level and provide rational support for why everyone should work to attain the organization ’s, or societal goals; and (d) idealized influence, which allows the manager to help the employees connect with the greater good for the collective. 7UDQVDFWLRQDO /HDGHUVKLS Transactional leadership focuses on a direct connection between rewards to an individual employee for his/her accomplishments. There can be group rewards but usually this form of leadership focuses on the individual, thus this style is helpful in individualized societies. Usually, transactional leadership does not seek to have a relationship with employees, but focuses on the task only. Loyalty and longevity are not as important in transactional leadership, since there is no expectation beyond task completion. Transactional leadership can be very effective given the right environment (McDermot, Conway, Rousseau, & Flood, 2013 p. 293), however, Jung and Avolio (2000) point out that transformational leadership tends to provide higher levels of performance in most organizations. A noted exception to this is Lincoln Electric that has used transactional incentives to increase performance among its employees (Hastings, 1996).